Sights to See and activities to Do While Cruising Antartica:

There are no voyages more mesmerising for the real environment lover than an Antarctica cruise. Unlike floating hotels in more moderate temperatures Antarctic cruises have a greater level of speculations and improbability.
You will begin out by making an ocean voyage practically to the end of the world, cross through one of the roughest stretches of water in the world, the Drake Passage, and be amazed by rare wildlife in their natural surroundings and enormous icebergs full of pulsating and changing hues.

At the start of your cruise west, your Antarctic cruise may make a take a break in the Falkland Islands, one of the biggest colonies of seabirds in the world. Millions of Antarctic birds, from albatrosses to rock hopper penguins, make their home in this region. Carcass Island, one of the Falkland Islands, has been inhabited by humans since the 19th century, and the well-nurtured trees and hedges make a stark differentiation to the other deserted islands in the chain.

From there, your Antarctica cruise will transport you through the Drake Passage, where winds scream between the South American and Antarctic land masses, causing some of the most perilous cruises in the world. Today, traversing the Drake Passage is definitely less risky than in earlier era, but ships can still be delayed by gale-force winds

Once through the Drake Passage…

…your Antarctica mini cruise will be ample with terrific scenery and wildlife that you would otherwise never have experienced outside of zoos and photographs. Look at whales, seals, and even the unique Emperor Penguins in their natural homes. Your first sight of land after your Antarctic Ocean voyage will be the South Shetland Islands. Based on the climate, you will make a trip research bases and penguin rookeries, and perhaps even look for rare Antarctic flowering shrubs.

The Antarctic Peninsula will most probably be the next break on your Antartican cruise. Here, you can view a former British research station which is now one of the world’s most far off museums, learn about Antarctic history and the stories of great voyagers in the region, and even swim in ocean waters warmed by partially-active volcanoes. You will become one of the few people in the globe who can narrate to have set foot on the elusive Antarctic continent.

Your Antarctica cruse will include unbelievable landscapes as well…

Your cruise liner will have the chance to cruise along some of the most appealing canals in the world, inclusive of the Lemaire Channel, a narrow channel that goes between huge glacier faces. The icebergs of the Antarctic are huge and astonishing, changing color and tone along with the light of the day

On most Antarctica cruises, your cruise specialist hold doctorates in fields related to the Antarctic scenery you will be seeing, and will be able to direct you and reply to any questions. The environment that you will be witnessing is so sensitive that no more than 100 people are normally allowed to land at one time, and you will need to take care to wash off your shoes and pants, to ascertain that no organisms are carried to the next landing area.

An Antarctica cruise vacation is an amazing experience, and one that you will remember for the rest of your life. The Antarctic sailing season is not very long, lasting only four months out of the year. The balance of the time, it is not only horribly cold, but the surroundings is also drab for much of the year, so get your cruising plans in today.

Technorati Tags: Allure, Antartica, Cruise, Pole, South

Soldiers in the trenches of the First World War would often quote that they fought for each other. It makes us English a united culture, the envy of so many around the world. It is part of the English Enigma. It is why the English can laugh at themselves and celebrate defeats. It is their confidence and their very character.

In peacetime we English played and invented many sports and Games which we gave the world including Football, Rugby, Cricket etc.

Queen Boudecca and the Rebellion of 59 AD Boudicca was the wife of Prasutagus, who was head of the Iceni tribe in East England, in what is now Norfolk and Suffolk.After Prasutagus died in 59 AD the Romans arrived to take over half the kingdom and seize control. To humiliate the former rulers, the Romans beat Boudicca publicly, raped their two daughters, seized the wealth of many Iceni and sold much of the royal family into slavery.

Led by Boudicca, about 100,000 British attacked Camulodunum (now Colchester), where the Romans had their main centre of rule. With Suetonius and most of the Roman forces away, Camulodunum was not well-defended, and the Romans were driven out. The Procurator Decianus was forced to flee. Boudicca’s army burned Camulodunum to the ground; only the Roman temple was left.

Immediately Boudicca’s army turned to the largest city in the British Isles, Londinium (London). Suetonius strategically abandoned the city, and Boudicca’s army burned Londinium and massacred the 25,000 inhabitants who had not fled. Archaeological evidence of a layer of burned ash shows the extent of the destruction.

List of Anglo – Welsh Wars from 446 AD to 598 AD This is a list of wars and battles between the English or England and the Welsh from the Adventus Saxonum in c.446AD to the late Middle Ages when they ceased.

The Battle of Mons Badonicus 490 – 517 AD The Battle of Mons Badonicus (English Mount Badon, Welsh Mynydd Baddon) was a battle between a force of Britons and an Anglo – Saxon army, probably sometime between 490 and 517 AD. Though it is believed to have been a major political and military event, there is no certainty about its date or place.

Battle of Edington – 878 AD In the late 9th century the Danes had slowly but surely infiltrated the British Isles and pushed back the Anglo-Saxon inhabitants. They already held the north and east of the country. A temporary defeat at Ashdown had interrupted, but not stopped, the Danish advances. Under Guthrum, they pushed into Wessex from the south and east. They launched a winter attack on a surprised King Alfred at his court of Chippenham.

The Battle of Ethandun by King Alfred The Great 878 AD Alfred won a decisive victory in the ensuing Battle of Ethandun, which may have been fought near Westbury, Wiltshire. He then pursued the Danes to their stronghold at Chippenham and starved them into submission. One of the terms of the surrender was that Guthrum convert to Christianity; and three weeks later the Danish king and 29 of his chief men were baptised at Alfred’s court at Aller, near Athelney, with Alfred receiving Guthrum as his spiritual son.

Battles of Brunanburh 937 AD was an Anglo-Saxon victory in 937 by the army of Æthelstan, King of Angle-Land, and his brother, Edmund, over the combined armies of Olaf III Guthfrithson, Norse-Gael King of Dublin, Constantine II, King of Scots, and Owen I, King of Strathclyde.

The Battle of Maldon AD 991Took place on the shores of the River Blackwater in Essex. There was a heroic stand by the Anglo-Saxons against the Viking invasion which ended in utter defeat for Brithnoth and his men. The battle’s progress is related in a famous Anglo-Saxon poem, only part of which survives.

Battle of Fulford – 1066 AD and Battle of Stamford Bridge – 1066.The Battle of Fulford, on the outskirts of York, has been overshadowed by the other great battles of 1066 at Stamford Bridge and Hastings.

The Battle of Hastings 1066 AD The Battle of Hastings which took place on October 14th. 1066 is considered to be the decisive battle resulting in the Norman conquest of England. The battle took place at Senlac Hill, about eighteen miles from Hastings.

Battle of The Standard or The Battle of Northallerton 1138 AD The Battle of the Standard, sometimes called the Battle of Northallerton, in which English Forces repelled a Scottish Army which took place on 22 August 1138 on Cowton Moor near Northallerton in Yorkshire.

Lincoln (First Battle of Lincoln) – 1141 AD The contest between Stephen of Blois and his cousin Maud ( Matilda ) for the throne of England was a messy affair, with first one side and then the other side gaining the upper hand. A supporter of Maud’s cause, Ranulf de Tailebois, seized control of Lincoln Castle and fortified it against attack. The citizens of Lincoln appealed to King Stephen for help.

Lincoln ( Second Battle of Lincoln ) – 1217 AD King John’s conflict with his powerful barons was at the root of the conflict known as the Battle of Lincoln Fair. The king was forced by his barons to sign the Magna Carta at Runnymede in 1215. Louis, Dauphin of France, sent troops to aide the baron’s cause.

Battle of Lewes – 1264 AD The reign of Henry III was beset by conflict with the Barons. Henry’s autocratic rule, his favouritism at Court towards unpopular French nobles, particularly his despised half brothers, his foreign policies, and his refusal to discuss or negotiate policy with his Barons led ultimately to the Barons War  of 1263 – 1267.

Battle of Evesham – 1265 ADThe Battle of Evesham in 1265 restored Henry III to the English throne where he stayed until his death in 1272. He was succeeded by his son Edward I who went on to conquer Wales and nearly Scotland. Monks recovered de Montfort’s mutilated body and buried him at Evesham Abbey. Today his grave is marked by a stone on which an inscription commemorates his death.

Battle of Stirling Bridge – 1297 AD In 1297 a commoner by the name of William Wallace was starting to oppose the English rule by attacking small English garrisons. The word soon spread through out Scotland and in a short time Wallace soon had enough followers to defend Scotland. When Edward heard of Wallace and his followers, he decided to send a large English army to wipe out Wallace before he got too big. When the word got out that a large English army was heading for Stirling to meet Wallace, thousands of Scots came down from the Highlands to join Wallace and confront the advancing English army. They met at Stirling. The Scots heavily defeated the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) which brought most of Scotland back to the Scots.

Battle of Falkirk – 1298 AD Wallace was knighted in 1298 and became a Guardian of Scotland, Wallace’s army then continued over the border to ravage the north of England, sacking many towns and causing mayhem before returning back to Scotland. This prompted Edward into invading Scotland again. Edward’s army advanced back into Scotland in 1298, and met Wallace at Falkirk.

Battle of Bannockburn – 1314 AD By 1314, only Stirling Castle was held by the English, and was not long till the Scots took it back. In a last attempt to stay in control of Scotland, Edward II and a large army marched north to relieve the castle. But was met by the Scots led by Robert the Bruce just outside of Stirling at Bannockburn.

The Hundred years War 1337 to 1453 AD The Hundred Years’ War (French: Guerre de Cent Ans) was a series of separate wars lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two royal houses for the French throne, which was vacant with the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings.

The Battle of Crecy 1346 AD France, August 26, 1346: after a long march from Cherbourg to the town of Crécy, the invading English forces faced off against an overwhelmingly larger French and Genoese army. It was a battle royale that shook France and showed the lasting ability of the English to defeat overwhelming odds.

Battle of Stalling Down – 1405 ADOwain Glyndwr (variously called Glendower, Glyn Dwr, and Owain ap Gruffydd) was a noble Welshman and a descendent of Llewelyn the Last. For most of his life he lived – and fought – as an Englishman, but by 1400 his growing sense of Welsh patriotic pride – and a squabble over land with his English neighbour – led him to raise an insuurection against the English in Wales.

Battle of Agincourt 1415 AD On 11 August 1415, Henry V, the English king for two years, set sail for France with an army to substantiate his claim to the French Throne. His plan was to take Harfleur as a bridgehead before marching down the Seine to Paris and Bordeaux. There are a number of possible reasons for this campaign. It was an attempt not only to reclaim what Henry believed to be his lawful birthrights, the Duchy of Normandy and the French Throne, but also as a means of securing his reign by diverting attention from the problems at home. Moreover, it was not without provocation by the French who had raided the English coast. After a generation of defeats and setbacks, this English force held three main strengths. If properly deployed, the English archer was one of the most formidable fighting forces in Europe, the strength of Henry as a general and the disorder of the French leadership under the frequent insanity of a weak king.

List of Battles during War of The Roses: Yorkshire V Lancashire 1455 – 1487

The first Battle of St. Albans 1455

The Battle of Blore Heath 1459

The Battle of Northampton 1460

The Battle of Wakefield 1460

The Battle of Mortimer’s Cross 1461

The Second Battle of St Albans – 1461 AD

The Battle of Ferry Bridge – 1461 AD

Battle of Towton – 1461 AD

The Battle of Hedgeley Moor 1464 AD

The Battle of Hexham 1464 AD

The Battle of Edgecote Moor 1469 AD

The Battle of Losecote Field 1470 AD

Battle of Barnet – 1471 AD

Battle of Tewkesbury – 1471 AD

Battle of Bosworth – 1485 AD

The Battle of Stoke – 1487 AD



Battle of Flodden – 1513 AD Even before the political significance of England’s resounding thumping of the Scots at Flodden Field, where almost a third of the Scottish army were slaughtered in Northumbria, military historians have cause to note the Battle Of Flodden Field. The most disastrous battle in Scotland’s history was a watershed for medieval combat, where the decisive thrust of the longbow, so favoured by England, began to cede, giving way to a new weapon more suited to lusty battle at close quarters.

The Spanish Armada 1588 AD The spectacular but unsuccessful attempt by King Philip II of Spain to invade Elizabethan England. The Armada is for the us English the classic foreign threat to our country.

The English Civil War 1641 – 1651 AD The English Civil War (1641–1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first (1642–46) and second (1648–49) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.

Battle of Edgehill 1642 ADEdgehill was the first major set-piece battle of the Civil War. A clear victory for either side at this point could have meant a rapid end to the conflict. Instead a combination of the particular circumstances surrounding the battle and poor leadership of both armies saw the clash end indecisively. The war would drag on for four bloody years yet.

Battle of Marston Moor – 1644 ADMarston Moor has some claim to being the biggest battle ever fought on British soil, and it was certainly one of the most decisive in our history, tipping the scales in the Civil War very much the way of the Parliamentary cause.

Battle of Naseby 1645 AD The Battle of Naseby was the key battle of the first English Civil War. On the 14th of June 1645, the main army of King Charles I was destroyed by the Parliamentarian New Model Army under Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell.

Battle of Worcester – 1651 AD in August 1651 Charles and his largely Scottish forces found themselves in Worcester, resting before either moving further south, or meeting Parliament’s New Model Army in battle.

The Monmouth Rebellion 1685 AD The Monmouth Rebellion of 1685, was an attempt to overthrow James II, who had become King of England, King of Scots and King of Ireland at the death of his elder brother Charles II on 6 February 1685. James II was unpopular because he was Roman Catholic and many people were opposed to a papist king. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II, claimed to be rightful heir to the throne and attempted to displace James II.The rebellion ended with the defeat of Monmouth’s forces at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685. Monmouth was executed for treason on 15 July, and many of his supporters were executed or transported in the “Bloody Assizes” of Judge Jeffreys.

Battle of Sedgmoor – 1685 AD took place at Westonzoyland near Bridgwater in Somerset, England.It was the final battle of the Monmouth Rebellion and followed a series of skirmishes around south west England between the forces of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth and the crown he was trying to take. The royalist forces prevailed and about 500 troops captured. Monmouth escaped from the battlefield but was later captured and taken to London for trial and execution.

The War of the Spanish Succession (the Duke of Marlborough) 1701-1714 AD Battle of Blenheim 1704 , Battle of Ramillies 1706

The War of the Austrian Succession 1742 to 1748 AD
Battles of: Dettingen 1743, Fontenoy, Roucoux and Lauffeldt.

The Jacobite Rebellion 1745 to 1746 AD
The Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in the British Isles occurring between 1688 and 1746. The uprisings were aimed at returning James VII of Scotland and II of England, and later his descendants of the House of Stuart, to the throne after he was deposed by Parliament during the Glorious Revolution. The series of conflicts takes its name from Jacobus, the Latin form of James. Battles of: Prestonpans, Falkirk and Battle of Culloden 1746.

The Seven Years War 1756 to 1763 AD
The Seven Years War was the first global conflict. It had two main fronts. The first, in Europe, was the hostility between Prussia and Austria, still simmering after the War of the Austrian Succession , which expanded through alliances to include all of Europe.

Battles of : Rossbach 1757, Minden 1759, Quebec 1759, Emsdorff 1760, Warburg 1760, Kloster Kamp 1760, Vellinghausen 1761 and Wilhelmstadt 1762.

The French and Indian War 1755 to 1763 AD
Braddock on the Monongahela, Ticonderoga 1758, Louisburg and Quebec 1759.

The American Revolutionary War 1775 to 1783 AD
Battles of: Concord and Lexington, Bunker Hill, Quebec 1775 – 1776, Long Island, Harlem Heights, White Plains, Fort Washington, Trenton, Princeton, Ticonderoga 1777, Hubbardton, Bennington 1777, Brandywine Creek, Freeman’s Farm, Paoli, Germantown, Saratoga, Monmouth 1778, Camden, King’s Mountain, Cowpens, Jersey 1781, Guilford Courthouse and Yorktown.

Battle of The Nile 1798 AD

The Battle of the Nile was Nelson’s famous victory over the French fleet on 1st August 1798, leaving Napoleon stranded with his army in Egypt. It was fought in Aboukir bay near Alexandria, Egypt, on the 1st and 2nd of August 1798. The British fleet was under the command of Rear Admiral Horatio Nelson and the French fleet under Admiral Paul D’Brueys.

Battle of Trafalgar 1805 AD
The Battle of Trafalgar was fought on the 21st of October 1805 off Cape Trafalgar on the Spanish coast, between the combined fleets of Spain and France and the Royal Navy. It was the last great sea action of the period and its significance to any invasion of England by the French and Spanish was ended and helped in the dominance of the Seas by us British for over 100 years.

The Napoleonic Wars 1802 to 1814 AD
Trafalgar and Quatre Bras.

The Peninsular War 1808 to 1814 AD
Vimeiro, Corunna, Douro, Talavera, Busaco, Barossa, Fuentes de Onoro, Albuera, Salamanca and Vitoria.

The War of 1812 AD between USA and GB On June 18, 1812, the United States stunned the world by declaring war on Great Britain. Supporting its allies in Spain and Portugal, Britain’s army was on the Iberian Peninsula, involved in a struggle with Napoleon Bonaparte, who had marshaled the forces of Revolutionary France under his penumbra.

Despite losing the Thirteen Colonies to George Washington and the American revolutionaries twenty-five years earlier, England, like many on the European continent, did not take the United States that seriously. Despite the fact that most of Britain’s supplies for the Napoleonic war came from America and Canada -from beef to feed the Duke of Wellington’s army, to the oak trees essential to maintain Britain’s majestic navy. Britain found itself faced with another war, a war they had assiduously tried to avoid.

The Battle of Waterloo AD 1815
The Battle of Waterloo took place near Waterloo, Belgium on June 18, 1815. In this battle, the forces of the French Empire under the leadership of Michael Ney and the Dictator Napoleon Bonaparte were defeated by an Anglo-Allied Army commanded by the Duke of Wellington.

The First Afghan War 1839 to 1842 AD in which Britain suffered the humiliation of a British and Indian force massacred by Afghan tribesmen as they struggled to reach India from Kabul and saw an Army of Retribution exact revenge.
Battles: Ghuznee, Kabul and Gandamak, Jellalabad and Kabul 1842.

The Second Afghan War 1879 to 1882 AD which saw three British/Indian armies invade Afghanistan, fighting the battles of Ali Masjid and Peiwar Kotal, the death of the British envoy Cavagnari in the Billa Hissar citadel at Kabul and the second invasion of Afghanistan by General Roberts, leading to the battles of the Sherpur Cantonment (Kabul), Ahmed Khel, the disaster of Maiwand and the final victory of Kandahar, following Roberts’ spectacular march from Kabul.
Battles: Ali Masjid, Peiwar Kotal, Charasiab, Kabul 1879, Ahmed Khel, Maiwand and Kandahar.

The First Sikh Wars 1845-1846 AD The Sikhs fought First Anglo Sikh War with the British and lost Kashmir as they were defeated in the battle.

The Second Sikh War 1848-1849 AD
The Second Anglo-Sikh War fell out between the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. The war led to the subjugation of the Sikh kingdom and the annexation of Punjab and what subsequently became the North-West Frontier Province by the British East India Company.

The Crimean War 1854 to 1856 AD Everyone interested in history has an impression of the Crimean war, if only because of the famous battle of the Charge of the Light Brigade, mistakenly charging the Russian cannon at the battle of Baklava in the aftermath of the Heavy Brigade’s triumph in breaking the Russian line. The latter passed into oblivion but the former took on immortality after Alfred Tennyson, doing a good day’s work as Poet Laureate. The battles included: Alma, Balaclava, Inkerman and Sevastopol.

World War One 1914 – 1918 The start of World War 1 was caused by the assasination of Archduke Francis Ferdinandon on June 14th. 1914 and the alliances throughout Europe which led to the first World War.

World War Two 1939-1945 Europe : Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany 1933. He rearmed the country, in violation of a treaty signed after World War One, and soon began to threaten other European nations. After the invasion of Poland in 1939 Britain and France declared war on Germany and Italy declared war on Britain and France. At this time in 1939 the Soviet Union had a pact with Germany. After the fall of France, Britain and its Commonwealth stood alone for 18 monthe against Hitler and Stalin. Once Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, Britain signed an accord with the Soviet Union against Hitler. The end of the war came shrotly after Hitler commited suicide at the end of April 1945.

World War Two 1941-1945 Japan In December 1941 The japenese bombed pearl Harbour and declared war on the USA. Hitler shortly afterwards declared war on the USA. This led to Britain to declare war on japan.

The Soviet Union joined Britain and its Commonwealth plus the USA in the war against Japan, and shortly after the soviets joining war against Japan the USA dropped a second Atom Bomb and shortly afterwards Tokyo surrendered within days, with V-J Day declared on 15 August 1945. On 2 September 1945 World War II ended when representatives of Japan signed the instruments of surrender aboard the battleship USS Missouri (BB 63) in Tokyo Bay.

The Korean War 1950-1957 The first British units to arrive at Pusan on 28 August 1950 were the 1st Battalion The Middlesex Regiment and 1st Battalion The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders under the 27th British Infantry Brigade.

The Suez Conflict 1956 AD In 1956, the Suez Canal became the focus of a major world conflict. The canal represents the only direct means of travel from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, making it vital to the flow of trade between Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. Normally, free passage was granted to all who used the canal, but Britain and France desired control of it, not only for commercial shipping, but also for colonial interests. The Egyptian government had just been taken over by Gamal Abdel Nasser, who felt the canal should be under Egyptian control. The United States and Britain had promised to give aid to Egypt in the construction of the Asw_n High Dam in the Nile. This aid was retracted however, and in retaliation Nasser nationalized the canal. He intended to use the funds raised from the operation of the canal to pay for the Dam.

The Falklands War 1982 AD The Falklands War started on Friday, 2 April 1982 with the Argentine invasion and occupation of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, and ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982. The war lasted 74 days, and resulted in the deaths of 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and three civilian Falklanders. It is the most recent conflict to be fought by the UK without any allied states and the only external Argentine war since the 1880s.

The First Iraq War 1990-1991 AD international conflict that was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Iraq’s leader, á¹¢addām Ḥussein, ordered the invasion and occupation of Kuwait with the apparent aim of acquiring that nation’s large oil reserves, canceling a large debt Iraq owed Kuwait, and expanding Iraqi power in the region.

The Second Gulf War 2003 AD to 2008 Prior to the war, the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom claimed that Iraq’s alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) posed a threat to their security and that of their coalition/regional allies. These were lies by Tony Blair and George W. Bush just to get the support of the UN and the populations of the Brits and Yanks.

The ongoing Afghan War 2001 to Present the War in Afghanistan is an ongoing coalition conflict which began on October 7, 2001, as the US military’s Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) that was launched, along with the British military, in response to both the September 11, 2001 attacks on the US. The UK has, since 2002, led its own military operation, Operation Herrick, as part of the same war in Afghanistan. The character of the war evolved from a violent struggle against Al-Qaeda and its Taliban supporters to a complex counterinsurgency effort.

Please visit my Funny Animal Art Prints Collection @ http://www.fabprints.com

My other website is called Directory of British Icons: http://fabprints.webs.com

The Chinese call Britain ‘The Island of Hero’s’ which I think sums up what we British are all about. We British are inquisitive and competitive and are always looking over the horizon to the next adventure and discovery.

Copyright © 2010 Paul Hussey. All Rights Reserved.





Technorati Tags: Battles, British, English, Famous, from, Present, Wars

Travel aboard the Clipper Adventurer for a 22-day trip-of-a-lifetime to the Great White Continent. Be amazed by ethereal snowscapes, icebergs, and dramatic peaks surrounded by beaches literally covered with nesting gentoo, adelie, and king penguins.
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Technorati Tags: Antarctica, Falkland, Georgia, Islands, South

Touring South America along the ocean

Every summer, cruise liners depart from places as diverse as Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Manaus, Sao Paulo and Valparaiso to take passengers on a journey along the South American coast. Several cruise lines have lined up now to give more and more people the chance to travel this route, as well as to cater to a far wider variety of people. Now, cruises are available on a much more personalized basis, and people do not need to cater to a one-size-fits-all.

People on a South American cruise travel vacation can choose between various durations and destinations during their tour of South America. Some cruises allow the opportunity to stay overnight at Rio or Buenos Aires, giving passengers the opportunity to experience the rich nightlife of those places. All these places, as well as Montevideo, Puerto Madryn and the Falkland Islands are on the East coast of South America.

On the western coast, cruise travel takes you along the Galapagos Islands in the north, down to General San Martin, Santiago, the Darwin Canal, the famed Chilean ports and down to Cape Horn. Some cruises also venture onto the northern tip of Antarctica – usually the Palmer Station and Elephant Islands.

For those who manage to time their cruise well, a visit to the famed carnival of Rio de Janeiro can also be thrown in along with the experience of the cruise itself. Some river cruises on the continent take travelers along the Amazon river and through the rainforest, where they can experience the sights, sounds and scents of the famed Amazon for themselves.

A cruise travel vacation in South America can be a way to spend time in the lap of luxury, to explore famous port cities, or to explore the natural wonders of the river and rainforest. All in all, this is an opportunity that must be availed at the soonest possible opportunity.

Technorati Tags: America, Cruise, Lines, South, Touring, Travel

South America tourism is something that drives, in large part the economies of most, if not all of the countries in South America. Every country in South America has something to offer for the hardy traveler. Given below are a list of South America tourism sites that one definitely must visit when in South America:

Argentina: Buenos Aires capital of Argentina, has a Spanish architecture to it, making it very vibrant. Be it night or day. The city of Cordoba is a great historical city, giving view of the colonial period it partook in. If you want to experience the life of the Gaucho cowboys, make a trip to Pampas. If its the flora and fauna world that excites you, Tiera del Fuego is the place for you. The most powerful waterfalls in the world is situated in the Iguazu Waterfalls. If history makes you go gaga, go to the land of the extinct dinosaurs, and early man, Talampaya. Argentina has something for everyone.

Bolivia: La Paz is the governmental capital of Bolivia and the main international hub for Bolivian Tourism. Sucre is the official capital of Bolivia, and as such has a very rich historical background. Salar de Uyuni is the largest salt flat in the world. Make sure you visit the salt hotel here, where even the furniture is made of salt. You could also visit Lake Titicaca, or the Tropical Rainforest if you want to indulge in the natural world here.

Brazil:Rio de Janeiro in Brazil and is amongst the hottest party places in Brazil. The carnivals of Rio de Janeiro is legendary. Many visit this place to see the Christ the Redeemer Statue. It is especially famous for Copacabana and it’s beach. São Paulo is the most populated place. It is very well known for international fashion week.some of the most beautiful beaches in the world are located in Santa Catarina.

Chile: While in Chile, make sure you visit the Cathedral of San Marcos. It was built by the architect of the Eiffel Tower. It is a popular tourist destination. Baquedano Street is the place to be if you wish to walk along old-style cobbled streets. Vaparaiso is where you should head to if you want to dip into Bohemian culture. You could also go in for a nice hot bath in the natural hot springs at Rancagua.

Colombia: The city of Bogota in colombia is known for the Museo de Oro, La Candelaria (the old town), and the “Eje ambiental”. In Cartagena, the Ciudad Amurallada (walled city), explore the historic past of colombia. Also small towns like Villa de Leyva, Raquira, and Zipaquira are definitely worth a visit. You could also get a glimpse of the Amazon and its excellent biodiversity in the Tayrona National Park.

Ecuador: Quito is the national capital and along with Cuenca, is listed as UN World Heritage Site, for the colonial architecture it presents. You could also choose to go to the Andes mountains, or the tropical rain forests. You could also go to the tropical beaches at Manta and Salinas. Ecuador is also home to the famous Galapagos Islands, and be one with nature.

Falkland islands: The Falkland Islands in South America are a British colony even now. Stanley is the capital of this country which is made up of more than 700 islands. It is a calm place and unlike the rest of South America tourism, provides a look into British influence more than Spanish.

French Guiana: As the name suggests, this place is a French overseas territory. It has a rich and varied history. Devil’s island here, is the most controversial sites and was used as a prison till 1946. this place is most famous for its King Carnival and the Mardi Gras celebrations.

Guyana: Georgetown is the capital city here. St George’s Cathedral is amongst the tallest wooden buildings in the world. Georgetown is also known as the “Garden City of the Caribbean”. Other interesting places to visit include the Stabroek Market, umana Yana, the Botanic Gardens, and the Kaieteur Falls.

Paraguay: Asunción is the capital city of Paraguay. It is importanit from the historical as well as tourist point of view. There are also a lot of natural wonders in this place. You could also book tickets on the Central circuit, that shows you the important places around the capital. The Iguazu Falls are another crowd-puller. The Chaco is a sparsely populated region known for its amny national parks, including the Defensores del Chaco.

Peru: if there’s one place in South America that can truly boast of being the most historical places, it has to be Peru. Right from developed places like the capital Lima, to mystical places like Nazca, Machu Picchu and Chiclayo. There are also naturally wonderful places like Huaraz & the Cordilleras. One of the main natural destinations in peru is the Iquitos on the Amazon River.

Suriname: An ideal destination for a good vacation. You could go on an adventure forest tip, checking out virgin flora and fauna. The capital Paramaribo is well known for its historical wooden architecture. You could also go to Matapica or Galibi to see sea turtles. Those interested in history can visit Fort Zeelandia or Jodensavanne.

Uruguay: Montevideo is the capital of this country. It is known for its many beaches and festivals. Punta del Diablo is a quiet little village where one can experience village life. Punta del Este is the party capital of Uruguay. Casa Pueblo is where one should head to check out the art and Mediterranean architecture.

Venezuela: Caracas is the oldest city in Venezuela and is the national capital. The place is a good mix of modern as well as traditional architectural styles. Venezuela is one of the most beautiful places on the planet in terms of natural beauty. The Angel Falls, for example, are world-renowned,. Coro was the old capital of Venezuela and offers insight into its colonial history. Other important places include Merida, Canaima National park,and the OrinocoDelta.

Technorati Tags: Amazing, America, South, Tourism

Three hundred miles off the Argentina coast in the South Atlantic lay the Falkland Islands, also known to the Argentines as Islas Malvinas. It consists of two main islands, East and West Falklands which lie 300 miles east of the Argentina coast. There are about 200 smaller islands that form a total land area of approximately 4,700 square miles. The only town and capital is Port Stanley.

The English navigator John Davis may have been the first person to sight the Falklands. However, the Argentine version states that “Spanish seamen” were the first without giving further details. Some also say that Ferdinand Magellan was the first to see the islands on his voyage around the world. Another claim is based on one of Magellan’s ships deserting the expedition and going back to Spain. While it is true that there was such a ship, there are no original documents to prove the actual sighting of the islands.

The government of the Falkland Islands administers the British dependent territories of South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, and the Shag and Clerke rocks, lying from 700 to 2,000 miles (1,100 to 3,200 km) to the east and southeast of the Falklands.

Argentina has claimed the islands since the early 19th century. Britain had occupied and administered the islands since 1833 and had consistently rejected Argentina’s claims. Just like any other conflicts in our world history, claiming and ruling a certain territory initiated war between the Argentines and the British forces. Ownership of the islands has always been a hotly contested issue between the two governments. On April 2nd of 1982, the war began, with thousands of Argentine troops landing on the Falklands.

The British captured about 10,000 Argentine prisoners, all of whom were afterward released. Argentina’s  defeat severely discredited the military government and led to the restoration of civilian rule in that country in 1983.

After more than 20 years, a shocking revelation unfolds. Research claims that a high number of veterans have taken their own lives since the South Atlantic conflict ended, both from the Argentine and the British troops. The suicide figure was almost half of the number of soldiers who died during the conflict.

There were also allegations that the people in command of the military forces of both countries tried to ignore the issue of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) which leaves many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work. Some veterans have claimed that their condition was not diagnosed or treated while they were still serving. They added that they were never warned about the effects on their enlistment or discharge from the forces. They were also not given any presentations or debriefings to prepare them for possible effects.

PTSD, is among only a few mental disorders that are triggered by a disturbing outside event, like war. The traumatic event causes a cascade of psychological and biological changes. Wars throughout the ages often triggered what some people called “shell shock,” in which returning soldiers were unable to adapt to life after war. Although each successive war brings about renewed attention on this syndrome, it wasn’t until the Vietnam War that PTSD was first identified and given this name.

There seems to be a general pattern for war veterans suffering PTSD. They experience recurring nightmares and flashbacks followed by a recourse to heavy drinking or drugs then crime. A lot of war veterans ended up in prison often for violence and some of them killed themselves in their cells. While many veterans have been suffering from PTSD, others have simply been unable to cope with the reality of life outside the forces. Many have become caught up in alcoholism, drug abuse, homelessness, depression, and relationship break-up. PTSD have indeed turned these war veterans towards the path of self-destruction.

Today, mental health providers such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and other health care professionals can attempt to understand people’s response to these traumatic events and help them recover from the impact of the trauma.

The Falklands Conflict was one of the few major naval campaigns to have occurred since the end of the Second World War. As such, the conflict illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. However, the Falklands War also illustrated the vulnerability of people, especially of the war veterans. Even if the war has ended, it has left an imprint that will forever be within their lives.

The Falklands war cost England 255 men, six ships, and more than 1.6 billion pounds. The war lasted 74 days, with 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and three civilian Falklanders killed. The Falklands campaign was considered a great victory for United Kingdom. The British may have overpowered the Argentines, but both of them suffered the consequences of the atrocity of war and continuously agonizing from it.

Technorati Tags: Disorder, Post, PostWar, Stress, Torture, Traumatic

A six-minute look at a wildlife paradise : albatrosses, penguins and more.
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Technorati Tags: Falkland, Islands

ITV4 documentary For an accurate history of the war www.naval-history.net The history of the Falklands English: www.falklandshistory.org Spanish: www.falklandshistory.org Falkland Islands Government www.falklands.gov.fk

Technorati Tags: Falklands, Soldiers, Story

History

Main article: History of Madagascar

As part of East Gondwana, the territory of Madagascar split from Africa approximately 160 million years ago; the island of Madagascar was created when it separated from the Indian subcontinent 80 to 100 million years ago. Most archaeologists estimate that the human settlement of Madagascar happened between 200 and 500 A.D., when seafarers from southeast Asia (probably from Borneo or the southern Celebes) arrived in outrigger sailing canoes. Bantu settlers probably crossed the Mozambique Channel to Madagascar at about the same time or shortly afterwards. However, Malagasy tradition and ethnographic evidence suggests that they may have been preceded by the Mikea hunter gatherers. The Anteimoro who established a kingdom in Southern Madagascar in the Middle Ages trace their origin to migrants from Somalia.

The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century, when Muslims established trading posts along the northwest coast. During the Middle Ages, the island’s kings began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably Arab, Persian and Somali traders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India.

Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centred in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the east African coast that gave Africa a trade route to the Silk Road, and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships.

The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created. Madagascar functioned in the East African Middle Ages as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such as Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar.

European contact began in the year 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India. The Portuguese continued trading with the islanders and named the island So Loureno (St. Lawrence). In 1666, Franois Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Ile-de-France (today’s Runion and Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast.

The most famous pirate utopia is that of Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of Libertatia in northern Madagascar in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates, including Americans, one of whom brought Malagasy rice to South Carolina. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. Sailors sometimes called Madagascar “Island of the Moon”.

Andrianampoinimerina

(1795-1819)

Radama I

(1810-1828)

Ranavalona I

(1828-1861)

Radama II

(1861-1863)

Rasoherina

(1863-1868)

Ranavalona II

(1868-1883)

Ranavalona III

(1883-1897)

Beginning in the 1790s, Merina rulers succeeded in establishing hegemony over most of the island, including the coast. In 1817, the Merina ruler and the British governor of Mauritius concluded a treaty abolishing the slave trade, which had been important in Madagascar’s economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to Presbyterianism, Congregationalism and Anglicanism.

With the domination of the Indian Ocean by the Royal Navy and the end of the Arab slave trade, the western Sakalava lost their power to the emerging Merina state. The Betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified, but this union soon faltered.

Queen Ranavalona I “the Cruel” (r. 1828-61) issued a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar. By some estimates, 150,000 Christians died during the reign of Ranavalona. The island grew more isolated, and commerce with other nations came to a standstill.

France invaded Madagascar in 1883, in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War seeking to restore property that had been confiscated from French citizens. (Hova is one of three Merina classes: andriana aristocracy, hova common people, andevo slaves. The term hova was wrongly used by the French to mean Merina.) At the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 francs to the heirs of Joseph-Franois Lambert. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate.

In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched to the capital, Antananarivo, where the city’s defenders quickly surrendered. Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended.

After the conclusion of hostilities, in 1896 France annexed Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile in Algeria.

During World War II, Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria. Some leaders in Nazi Germany proposed deporting all of Europe’s Jews to Madagascar (the Madagascar Plan), but nothing came of this. After France fell to Germany, the Vichy government administered Madagascar. During the Battle of Madagascar, British troops occupied the island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese, after which the Free French took over.

In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, the Malagasy Uprising broke out. It was suppressed after over a year of bitter fighting, with 8,000 to 90,000 people killed. The French later established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960. In 2006 the country experienced an attempted coup.

Politics

Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Politics of Madagascar

Although the present head of State has self-proclaimed himself, Madagascar is usually a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Madagascar is head of government, and of a pluriform[disambiguation needed] multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Senate and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.

The political situation in Madagascar has been marked by struggle for control. After Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, assassinations, military coups and disputed elections featured prominently.

Didier Ratsiraka took power in a military coup in 1975 and ruled until 2001, with a short break when he was ousted in the early 1990s. When Marc Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka both claimed victory after presidential elections in December 2001, Ratsiraka’s supporters tried to blockade the capital, Antananarivo, which was pro-Ravalomanana. After eight months of sporadic violence with considerable economic disruption, a recount in April 2002 led the High Constitutional Court to pronounce Ravalomanana president, but it was not until July that Ratsiraka fled to France and Ravalomanana gained control of the country.

Internal conflict in Madagascar had been minimal in the years that followed and since 2002, Ravalomanana and his party, Tiako-I-Madagasikara (TIM), have dominated political life. In an attempt to restrict the power and influence of the president, the prime minister and the 150-seat parliament have been given greater power in recent years.

Tension since was generally associated with elections. A presidential election took place in December 2006 with some protests over worsening standards of living, despite a government drive to eradicate poverty. Calls by a retired army general in November 2006 for Ravalomanana to step down were said to have been ‘misinterpreted’ as a coup attempt.

2009 Malagasy protests

Main article: 2009 Malagasy protests

The latest, and ongoing, spate of violence pitted then-President Marc Ravalomanana against Andry Rajoelina, former mayor of the capital, Antananarivo. Since the power tussle started on 26 January, more than 170 people were killed. Rajoelina mobilized his supporters to take to the streets of Antananarivo to demand Ravalomanana’s ousting on the grounds of his alleged “autocratic” style of government.

Ravalomanana’s resignation

After losing support of the military and under intense pressure from Rajoelina, President Ravalomanana resigned on 17 March 2009. Ravalomanana assigned his powers to a military council loyal to himself headed by Vice-Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson. The military called the move by Ravalomanana a “ploy” and said that it would support Rajoelina as leader. Rajoelina had already declared himself the new leader a month earlier and has since assumed the role of acting President. He has appointed Monja Roindefo as Prime Minister. Rajoelina announced that elections would be held in two years and that the constitution would be amended.

The European Union, amongst other international entities, has refused to recognize the new government, due to it being installed by force. The African Union, which proceeded to suspend Madagascar’s membership on 20 March and the Southern Africa Development Community both criticized the forced resignation of Ravalomanana. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s spokesperson said he is “gravely concerned about the evolving developments in Madagascar”.

Provinces and regions

Main articles: Provinces of Madagascar and Regions of Madagascar

Madagascar is currently divided into six autonomous provinces (faritany mizakatena), and subdivided into 22 regions (faritra), the latter created in 2004. The regions will be the highest subdivision level when the provinces are dissolved in accordance with the results of the 4 April 2007 referendum, which means by 4 October 2009.

Antananarivo (1)

Analamanga

Bongolava

Itasy

Vakinankaratra

Antsiranana (2)

Diana

Sava

Fianarantsoa (3)

Amoron’i Mania

Atsimo-Atsinanana

Haute-Matsiatra

Ihorombe

Vatovavy-Fitovinany

Mahajanga (4)

Betsiboka

Boeny

Melaky

Sofia

Toamasina (5)

Alaotra Mangoro

Analanjirofo

Atsinanana

Toliara (6)

Androy

Anosy

Atsimo-Andrefana

Menabe

The regions are further subdivided into 116 districts, 1,548 communes, and 16,969 fokontany. The major cities have a special status as “commune urbaine”, at the same level as the districts.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Madagascar

Isalo National Park

At 587,000 square kilometres (227,000 sq mi), Madagascar is the world’s 46th-largest country and the fourth largest island. It is slightly bigger than France, and is one of 11 distinct physiographic provinces of the South African Platform physiographic division.

Towards the east, a steep escarpment leads from the central highlands down into a ribbon of rain forest with a narrow coastal further east. The Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of natural and man-made lakes connected by canals that runs parallel to the east coast for some 460 km (286 mi) (about two-thirds of the island). The descent from the central highlands toward the west is more gradual, with remnants of deciduous forest and savanna-like plains (which in the south and southwest, are quite dry and host spiny desert and baobabs). On the west coast are many protected harbours, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion inland.

Along the crest of this ridge lie the central highlands, a plateau region ranging in altitude from 2,450 to 4,400 ft (747 to 1,341 m) above sea level. The central highlands are characterised by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between barren hills. Here, the red laterite soil that covers much of the island has been exposed by erosion, showing clearly why the country is often referred to as the “Red Island”.

The island’s highest peak, Maromokotro, at 2,876 metres (9,440 ft), is found in the Tsaratanana Massif, located in the far north of the country. The Ankaratra Massif is in the central area south of the capital Antananarivo and hosts the third highest mountain on the island, Tsiafajavona, with an altitude of 2,642 metres (8,670 ft). Further south is the Andringitra massif which has several peaks over 2,400 metres (7,900 ft) including the second and fourth highest peaks, Pic Imarivolanitra, more widely known as Pic Boby (2,658 metres/8,720 feet), and Pic Bory (2,630 metres/8,600 feet). Other peaks in the massif include Pic Soaindra (2,620 metres/8,600 feet) and Pic Ivangomena (2,556 metres/8,390 feet). This massif also contains the Andringitra Reserve. On very rare occasions, this region experiences snow in winter due to its high altitude.

There are two seasons: a hot, rainy season from November to April, and a cooler, dry season from May to October. South-eastern trade winds predominate, and the island occasionally experiences cyclones.

Ecology

Main articles: Fauna of Madagascar, Ecoregions of Madagascar, and Agroecology in Madagascar

Tsingy in Madagascar

Madagascar’s long isolation from the neighboring continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals, many found nowhere else in the world; some ecologists refer to Madagascar as the “eighth continent”. Of the 10,000 plants native to Madagascar, 90% are found nowhere else in the world. Madagascar’s varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity, as a third of its native vegetation has disappeared since the 1970s, and only 18% remains intact. Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. The elephant birds, which were giant ratites native to Madagascar, have been extinct since at least the 17th century. Aepyornis was the world’s largest bird, believed to have been over 3 metres (10 ft) tall.

Most lemurs are listed as endangered or threatened species. Many species have gone extinct in the last centuries, mainly due to habitat destruction and hunting.

The eastern, or windward side of the island is home to tropical rainforests, while the western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Madagascar’s dry deciduous rain forest has been preserved generally better than the eastern rainforests or the high central plateau, presumably due to historically low population densities. Madagascar has several national parks.

The Indri is 1 of 99 recognized species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.

Extensive deforestation has taken place in parts of the country, some due to mining operations. Slash-and-burn activity, locally called tavy, has occurred in the eastern and western dry forests as well as on the central high plateau, reducing certain forest habitat and applying pressure to some endangered species. Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short-term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly without intervening fallow periods, the nutrient-poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. The resulting increased surface runoff from burned lands has caused significant erosion and resulting high sedimentation to western rivers.

As a part of conservation efforts, the Wildlife Conservation Society has recently opened a Madagascar! exhibit at the Bronx Zoo. The New York Academy of Sciences recently published a Podcast about the Madagascar! exhibit, which details the fauna and flora of Madagascar and what types of projects the WCS is involved with in the country. The Podcast can be listened to here

Madagascar is represented in the FIPS 10-4 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Madagascar

Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar

Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy. Major exports are coffee, vanilla (Madagascar is the world’s largest producer and exporter of vanilla), sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts and livestock products. Vanilla has historically been of particular importance, and when in 1985 Coca-cola switched to New Coke which involved less vanilla, Madagascar’s economy took a marked downturn, but returned to previous levels after the return of Coke Classic.

Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the World Bank. An initial privatization program (19881993) and the development of an export processing zone (EPZ) regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991 to 1996 was followed by five years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment, driven by a second wave of privatizations[citation needed] and EPZ development. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak and perceived corruption in Madagascar was extremely high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 to 2001, poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar’s budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. After the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3%, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy of raising the Taux Directeur (central bank rate) to 16% and tightening reserve requirements for banks. Thus growth was expected to reach around 6.5% in 2005.

Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and donors. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a “Friends of Madagascar” conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.

Rice paddies in Madagascar

In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.

The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed as a collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Malagasian artisan producers in Madagascar in 2002. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organisations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.

The government of President Ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Some recent concerns have arisen about the conflict of interest between his policies and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country.

Madagascar’s sources of growth are tourism; textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs); agricultural products; and mining. Madagascar is the world’s leading producer of vanilla and accounts for about half the world’s export market. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar’s unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, comprise the majority of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low-volume high-value products like vanilla, litchies and essential oils. A small but growing part of the economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin. Mining corporation Rio Tinto Group expects to begin operations near Fort Dauphin in 2008, following several years of infrastructure preparation. The mining project is highly controversial, with Friends of the Earth and other environmental organizations filing reports to detail their concerns about effects on the local environment and communities.

Autoclave enters Madagascar, 2008, as part of new mining operation

Several major projects are underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy.

In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Madagascar

Madagascar was historically perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which was founded in 1963. President Albert Zafy, taking office in 1993, expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco.

Starting in 1997, globalisation encouraged the government and President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets. External relations reflect this trend, although Madagascar’s physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its East African neighbours. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its Indian Ocean neighbours Mauritius, Runion and Comoros. Active relationships with Europe, especially France, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as with Britain, Russia, Japan, India and China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Madagascar is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).

The OAU dissolved in 2002 and was replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit due to the dispute over the results of the election in December 2001, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. However, Madagascar was suspended again by the African Union in March 2009 due to the ongoing political crisis.

During his presidency, Marc Ravalomanana traveled widely promoting Madagascar abroad and consciously sought to strengthen relations with Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence. He also cultivated strong ties with China during his tenure.

In November 2004, after an absence of almost 30 years, Madagascar re-opened its embassy in London. On 15 December 2004 the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, announced the closure of the British embassy in Antananarivo to save 250,000 a year. He also announced an end to the government’s aid to Madagascar, the DFID-funded Small Grants Scheme. The embassy closed in August 2005 despite petitions and protests from African heads of state, a European commissioner, the Malagasy Senate, many British companies, 30 or so NGOs operating in Madagascar, and members of the public.[citation needed]

The British Embassy was previously closed (also for financial reasons) from 1975 to 1980. The Anglo-Malagasy Society are campaigning to have it re-opened.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Madagascar

Antananarivo, Madagascar

Madagascar’s population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian (i.e.South-East Asian/Pacific Islander) and African origin. Those who are visibly Austronesian in appearance and culture are the minority, found mostly in the highland regions. Recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until Austronesian seafarers arrived about 1,500 to 2,000 years ago. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy people are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African descent, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast. Malagasy language shares some 90% of its basic vocabulary with the Ma’anyan language from the region of the Barito River in southern Borneo.

Subsequent migrations from the East Indies and Africa consolidated this original mixture, and 36 separate tribal groups emerged. Austronesian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million) ; the coastal people (called ctiers) are of more clearly African origin. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. Other tribes include Tankarana (northern tip), Sihanaka and Bezanozano (east), Tanala (south-east), An-Taimoro, Tambahoaka, Zafisoro, An-Taisaka and Timanambondro (south-east coast), and Mahafaly and Bara (south-west). Chinese and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Europeans, mostly French. The number of Comorans residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comoran rioting in Mahajanga in 1976.

During the French colonial administration (18951960) and some time after independence, people were officially classified in ethnic groups. This practice was abandoned in the first census (1975) after independence, so any recent classification and figures for ethnic groups is an unofficial estimate. There is for instance no mention of ethnicity or religion in the national identity cards. Also, territorial divisions (provinces, regions) do not follow any ethnic division lines, despite an attempt by the colonial administration in the early 20th century. Ethnic divisions continue, and may cause violence, but their role is limited in today’s society. Ethnic tensions in Madagascar often produce violent conflict between the Merina highlanders and coastal peoples. Regional political parties are also rare, although some parties receive most of their support in certain areas.

Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence.

In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15% of the population.

Health

The fertility rate is at about 5 children per woman. There are about 29 physicians per 100,000 persons. Infant mortality was at 74 per 1,000 live births in 2005. Life expectancy at birth was at 58.4 in the early 21st century. Expenditure on health was 29 US$ (PPP) in 2004.

Language

Main article: Languages of Madagascar

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is spoken among the educated population of this former French colony. English, although still rare, is becoming more widely spoken, and in 2003, the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of English into the primary grades of 44 schools, with hopes of taking the project nationwide. Many Peace Corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers.

In the first Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic.

No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992. Instead, Malagasy was named the national language; however, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, as they were de facto. In April 2000, a citizen brought a legal case on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the French language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language.

In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remains the national language while official languages are reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English. The motivation for the inclusion of English is partly to improve relations with the neighbouring countries where English is used and to encourage foreign direct investment.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Madagascar

Malagasy culture reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Arab, African and European influences. Houses in Madagascar are typically four-sided with a peaked roof, in a style commonly seen in Southeast Asia, rather than the circular style of hut construction more commonly found in Eastern Africa. Rice forms the basis of every meal in most parts of the country as in Asia. The dishes prepared to accompany the rice vary depending on local availability of food products and are known as laoka.

Arab influence

Arab immigrants were few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, but they left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins are Arabic in origin, as is the practice of circumcision, the communal grain pool, and different forms of salutation. The Arab magicians, known as the ombiasy, established themselves in the courts of many Malagasy tribal kingdoms. Arab immigrants imposed the patriarchal system of family and clan rule on Madagascar. Previous to the Arabs, the Malagasies practiced the Polynesian matriarchal system whereby rights of privilege and property are conferred equally on men and women.

Education

A significant proportion of the adult population are illiterate. The female youth literacy rate is below the male youth literacy rate. Public expenditure on education was at 16.4 % of total government expenditure in the 2000-2007 period. Public current expenditure on primary education per pupil is at about US$ 57 (PPP). Madagascar has several universities.

Cuisine

Main article: Cuisine of Madagascar

Music

Main article: Music of Madagascar

Madagascar has a distinctive and rich musical heritage. The early Austronesian settlers brought with them the predecessor to the bamboo tube zither known as the valiha as well as other instruments that would form the basis for traditional Malagasy music. The influence of Africans is evident in certain drumming and polyharmonic singing styles, while the tendency toward minor chords along the coasts reflects an Arab musical influence. European pirates likewise contributed to Malagasy musical traditions, importing the guitar, accordion, piano and the instruments used in hiragasy performance including the violin, trumpet and clarinet.

Mythology

Main article: Malagasy mythology

The country has a rich oratory tradition in the form of hainteny, kabary and ohabolana. An epic poem, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island and showcases the lively and highly developed oral traditions of Madagascar.

Hainteny

Main article: hainteny

The zebu, or humped cattle, occupies an important place in traditional Malagasy culture. The animal can take on sacred importance and constitutes the wealth of the owner, a tradition originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the Southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. Where African influences are strongest, as in the Southern region around Tulear, wealth and social status are measured in cattle, and the zebu can outnumber the inhabitants by two or three to one. Zebu are a popular motif on aloalo, the carved wooden poles that decorate tombs among some tribes in the southwestern part of the country.

Andrianampoinimerina (circa 17451810) united the Merina kingdom, moving his capital from Ambohimanga to Antananarivo and building his royal palace, or rova, on a strategic location on the highest hilltop overlooking the city. A number of cultural traditions, including the kabary and the hiragasy, were popularized during the period of his administration.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Madagascar

Traditional religion

Main article: Malagasy mythology

Approximately 50% of the country’s population practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. The Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana, or “turning over the dead”, celebrates this spiritual communion. In this ritual, relatives’ remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor where sometimes the bodies are lifted and carried high above the celebrants heads with singing and dancing before returning them to the tomb.

Traditionally, the Malagasy hold their ancestors in high esteem and many believe they continue to intervene in events on Earth after their death. A powerful individual may establish a fady (taboo) in his or her lifetime that all their descendents or those of community members will be required to respect well after their death, meaning that when traveling in Madagascar it is advisable to seek out village elders or authorities and inquire into local fady in order not to inadvertently transgress and offend the local population. This veneration of ancestors has also lead to the tradition of tomb building and the famadihana, a practice whereby a deceased family member’s remains may be taken from the tomb to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The event is an occasion to celebrate the loved one’s memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are often served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is typically present.

Christianity

Main article: Roman Catholicism in Madagascar

See also: Ranavalona I#Christian persecution

Roman Catholic cathedral in Antsirabe.

Today about 45% of the Malagasy are Christian, divided almost evenly between Catholics and Protestants. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a Christian minister to attend a famadihana. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches (FFKM) comprising the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations(Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican). In the 19th century under Queen Ranavalona I, there was infamous persecution and mass extermination of Christians.

Islam

Main article: Islam in Madagascar

Islam in Madagascar constitutes about 7% of the population. The Arab and Somali Muslim traders who first brought Islam in the Middle Ages had a deep influence on the west coast. For example, many Malagasy converted to Islam and the Malagasy language was, for the first time, transcribed into an alphabet, based on the Arabic alphabet, called Sorabe. Muslims are concentrated in the provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians.

Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in Madagascar

Hinduism in Madagascar began with Gujarati from the Saurashtra region of India as far back as 1900, when Madagascar was a French colony. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi.

International rankings

Organization

Survey

Ranking

Institute for Economics and Peace

Global Peace Index

72 out of 144

United Nations Development Programme

Human Development Index

145 out of 182

Transparency International

Corruption Perceptions Index

99 out of 180

World Economic Forum

Global Competitiveness Report

121 out of 133

See also

Main articles: Outline of Madagascar and Index of Madagascar-related articles

Military of Madagascar

Transport in Madagascar

Communications in Madagascar

Malagasy diplomatic missions

Firaisan’ny Skotisma eto Madagasikara

References

^ “Malagasy” is the correct form in English; Embassy of Madagascar, Washington D.C. “Madagascan” is used only for the island, not its people National Geographic Style Manual

^ Central Intelligence Agency (2009). “Madagascar”. The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ma.html. Retrieved January 9, 2010. 

^ a b c d “Madagascar”. International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=674&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC,LP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=54&pr.y=18. Retrieved 2009-10-01. 

^ Human Development Indices, Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 35. Retrieved on 1 June 2009

^ BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Giant palm tree puzzles botanists

^ Malagasy languages, Encyclopdia Britannica

^ Migration from Kalimantan to Madagascar by O. C. Dahl

^ Archaeology, Language, and the African Past by Roger Blench

^ The African diaspora in the Indian Ocean By Shihan de S. Jayasuriya, Richard Pankhurst pg 82

^ “Background Note: Madagascar”. U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-12. 

^ Cities of the Middle East and North Africa By Michael Dumper, Bruce E. Stanley, Janet L. Abu-Lughod pg 391

^ Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina

^  ”Madagascar”. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Madagascar. 

^ Vincent, Rose (1990). The French in India: From Diamond Traders to Sanskrit Scholars. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 0-8613-2259-2. 

^ From MADAGASCAR to the MALAGASY REPUBLIC, by Raymond K. Kent pg 6571

^ Madagascar: An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and Its Former Dependencies by Samuel Pasfield Oliver., p. 6. (excerpted in Google Book Search)

^ Ranavalona I (Merina queen). Britannica Online Encyclopedia.

^ Keith Laidler. Female Caligula. Ranavalona, the Mad Queen of Madagascar. Wiley (2005) ISNB -13 978-0-470-02223-8 (HB). 

^ (French) 1947 L’insurrection Madagascar – Jean Fremigacci – Marianne[dead link]

^ a b IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: ‘Violence could escalate’ | Governance Conflict | News Item

^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Former president sentenced to five years in prison | Governance | News Item

^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Hoping for fair, transparent, uncontroversial elections | Economy Governance Other | Feature

^ IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Appeal launched despite political uncertainty | Children Economy Food Security Governance Health & Nutrition Conflict …

^ a b Corbett, Christina; McGreal, Chris (18 March 2009). “Madagascar’s president resigns as rival claims power”. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/mar/18/madagascar-marc-ravalomanana. 

^ a b c “Military backs Madagascar rival”. BBC News. 17 March 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7949596.stm. 

^ “Madagascan opposition takes over prime minister’s office”. Xinhua. 14 March 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-03/14/content_11011120.htm. 

^ “Madagascar President Resigns”. Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-03-16-voa65.cfm. Retrieved 2009-03-17. 

^ African Union suspends Madagascar over ‘coup’ – Africa, World – The Independent

^ (UPDATE) Army puts Madagascar opposition leader in charge | Home >> Other Sections >> Breaking News

^ The Eighth Continent: Life, Death, and Discovery in the Lost World of Madagascar

^ a b “Science News: New Genus of Self-destructive Palm found in Madagascar”. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.kew.org/scihort/news/new_palm_genus.html. Retrieved 2008-01-30. 

^ Terrestrial Ecoregions — Madagascar subhumid forests (AT0118), National Geographic.

^ Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)

^ Lemurs Hunted, Eaten Amid Civil Unrest, Group Says. National Geographic News. August 21, 2009.

^ Science & the City | Public Gateway to the New York Academy of Sciences

^ “Independent States in the World”. United States Department of State. 2008-03-20. http://www.state.gov/s/inr/rls/4250.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-24. 

^ Madagascar – Country Facts- Goway Travel Experiences

^ “Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: a Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development; Final Report”, A Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development.

^ Madagascar – Mining: Heavy Minerals Mining

^ Rio Tinto’s Madagascar mining project

^ “Africa rejects Madagascar ‘coup’” bbc.co.uk 20 March 2009 Link accessed 20 March 2009

^ U.S. Library of Congress,”Madagascar – Minorities”

^ L’ethnicisation des rapports sociaux Madagascar

^ “Ethnic strife rocks Madagascar”. BBC News. May 14, 2002.

^ a b c d e f g http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_MDG.html

^ “Le malgache et le franais sont les langues officielles de la Rpublique Malgache.” Constitution, Titre I, Art. 2; Constitutional Law 14 October 1958.

^ Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Dcision n03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000

^ Madagascar adopts English as official language, ClickAfrique.com, 10 April 2007.

^ a b http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/madagascar_statistics.html

^ Madagascar and Africa III. The Anteimoro: A Theocracy in Southeastern Madagascar, by R. K. Kent The Journal of African History 1969 pg 62

^ “Vision of Humanity”. Vision of Humanity. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php. Retrieved 2010-02-04. 

External links

Find more about Madagascar on Wikipedia’s sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

Government

The Madagascar Government

National Assembly of Madagascar

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Madagascar

Embassies and Consulates

Canada Hungary Washington DC

Chief of State and Cabinet Members, from CIA

General information

Country Profile from BBC News

Madagascar entry at The World Factbook

Madagascar from UCB Libraries GovPubs

Madagascar at the Open Directory Project

Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar

Madagascar travel guide from Wikitravel

News media

Madagascar Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN United Nations

Madagascar news headline links from allAfrica.com

Ecology

Madagascar’s National Parks and Reserves official park website

Conservation International Madagascar overview pages

Madagascar Wildlife Conservation MWC is a Malagasy non-profit association, which organises and pursues community-based conservations projects

New York Academy of Sciences Conserving Madagascar Podcast by Helen Crowley

Madagascar conservation story

Journal Madagascar Conservation & Development

Miscellaneous

The Madagascar Project, Project set up to help Malagasy communities tackle the causes and effects of poverty

Old maps of Madagascar by CEGET library (CNRS, France)

Azafady UK charity and Malagasy NGO working in southeast Madagascar to alleviate poverty, improve well-being and protect beautiful unique environments with the help of its award winning volunteering programmes.

Shama Foundation of Madagascar charitable organization providing scholarships for underprivileged students in Madagascar

Opinions of La Haute Cour Constitutionelle du Madagascar

Blue Ventures award winning not-for-profit organisation dedicated to facilitating projects and expeditions that enhance global marine conservation and research. Based in Andavadoaka, South West coast of Madagascar.

Foko-madagascar not-for-profit organization and Rising Voices grantee project dedicated to the use of ICT as a tool to promote sustainable development, especially combining human development and the protection of the environment.

WildMadagascar.org Overview, news, photos, cultural history. English and French

Madagascar Photos Madagascar

The Palmarium reserve, is situated on the East coast of Madagascar.

Keelonga, keelonga is an organisation dedicated to assisting rural primary schools with infrastructures and teachers

 

Articles Related to Madagascar

 

 Geographic locale

Lat. and Long. 1855 4731 / 18.917S 47.517E / -18.917; 47.517 (Antananarivo)

v  d  e

Countries and territories of Africa

West Africa

Benin  Burkina Faso  Cape Verde  Cte d’Ivoire  The Gambia  Ghana  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Liberia  Mali  Mauritania  Niger  Nigeria  Senegal  Sierra Leone  Togo

North Africa

Algeria  Egypt  Libya  Mauritania  Morocco  Sudan  Tunisia

Central Africa

Angola  Burundi  Cameroon  Central African Republic  Chad  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Equatorial Guinea  Gabon  Rwanda  So Tom and Prncipe

East Africa

Burundi  Comoros  Djibouti  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Kenya  Madagascar  Malawi  Mauritius  Mozambique  Seychelles  Somalia  Tanzania  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe

Southern Africa

Botswana  Lesotho  Namibia  South Africa  Swaziland

 States with

limited recognition

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic  Somaliland

 Partially in Africa

France (Runion)  Italy (Pantelleria)  Portugal (Madeira)  Spain (Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / Plazas de soberana)  Yemen (Socotra)

 Dependencies

Iles Eparses (France)  Mayotte (France)  Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)

 Disputed areas

Western Sahara

v  d  e

Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean

Africa

Comoros  Djibouti  Egypt  Eritrea  Kenya  Madagascar  Mauritius  Mayotte  Mozambique  Runion  Seychelles  Somalia  South Africa  Sudan  Tanzania

Asia

Bahrain  Bangladesh  Burma  Christmas Island  Cocos (Keeling) Islands  India  Indonesia  Iran  Iraq  Israel  Jordan  Kuwait  Malaysia  Maldives  Oman  Pakistan  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  Sri Lanka  Thailand  United Arab Emirates  Yemen

Oceania

Australia  Christmas Island  Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Islands

Bahrain  British Indian Ocean Territory  Christmas Island  Cocos (Keeling) Islands  Comoros  Madagascar  Maldives  Mauritius  Mayotte  Runion  Seychelles  Sri Lanka

 

International membership

v  d  e

Southern African Development Community (SADC)

Member states

Angola  Botswana  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Lesotho  Madagascar  Malawi  Mauritius  Mozambique  Namibia  South Africa  Swaziland  Tanzania  Zambia  Zimbabwe

Leaders

Chairpersons: Levy Mwanawasa  Kgalema Motlanthe

Secretaries-General: Kaire Mbuende  Prega Ramsamy  Tomaz Salomo

See also

Southern African Development Coordination Conference  Southern African Customs Union  Common Monetary Area  Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

v  d  e

African Union (AU)

Algeria  Angola  Benin  Botswana  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cameroon  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chad  Comoros  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Cte d’Ivoire  Djibouti  Egypt  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Equatorial Guinea  Gabon  The Gambia  Ghana  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Libya  Madagascar  Malawi  Mali  Mauritania  Mauritius  Mozambique  Namibia  Niger  Nigeria  Rwanda  Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Seychelles  Sierra Leone  Somalia  South Africa  Sudan  Swaziland  Tanzania  Togo  Tunisia  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe

v  d  e

Portuguese Empire

North Africa 

15th century

14151640  Ceuta

14581550  Alccer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir)

14711550  Arzila (Asilah)

14711662  Tangier

14851550  Mazagan (El Jadida)

1487 middle 16th century  Ouadane

14881541  Safim (Safi)

16th century

15051769  Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gu (Agadir)

15061525  Mogador (Essaouira)

15061525  Aguz (Souira Guedima)

15061769  Mazagan (El Jadida)

15131541  Azamor (Azemmour)

15771589  Arzila (Asilah)

Sub-Saharan Africa 

15th century

14551633  Arguin

14701975  So Tom1

14741778  Annobn

14781778  Fernando Poo (Bioko)

14821637  Elmina (So Jorge da Mina)

14821642  Portuguese Gold Coast

14961550  Madagascar (part)

14981540  Mascarene Islands

16th century

15001630  Malindi

15001975  Prncipe1

15011975  Portuguese E. Africa (Mozambique)

15021659  St. Helena

15031698  Zanzibar

15051512  Quloa (Kilwa)

15061511  Socotra

15571578  Accra

15751975  Portuguese W. Africa (Angola)

15881974  Cacheu2

15931698  Mombassa (Mombasa)

17th century

16421975  Cape Verde

16451888  Ziguinchor

16801961  So Joo Baptista de Ajud

16871974  Bissau2

18th century

17281729  Mombassa (Mombasa)

17531975  So Tom and Prncipe

19th century

18791974  Portuguese Guinea

18851975  Portuguese Congo (Cabinda)

1 Part of So Tom and Prncipe from 1753.   2 Part of Portuguese Guinea from 1879.

Southwest Asia 

16th century

15061615  Gamru (Bandar-Abbas)

15071643  Sohar

15151622  Hormuz (Ormus)

15151648  Quriyat

1515?   Qalhat

15151650  Muscat

1515??   Barka

15151633? Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)

15211602  Bahrain (Muharraq and Manama)

15211529?  Qatif

1521?1551? Tarut Island

15501551  Qatif

15881648  Matrah

17th century

1620?   Khor Fakkan

1621??   As Sib

16211622  Qeshm

1623?   Khasab

1623?   Libedia

1624?   Kalba

1624?   Madha

16241648  Dibba Al-Hisn

1624??   Bandar-e Kong

Indian subcontinent 

15th century

14981545  Laccadive Islands (Lakshadweep)

16th century

Portuguese India

   15001663  Cochim (Kochi)

   15021661  Quilon (Coulo/Kollam)

   15021663  Cannanore (Kannur)

   15071657  Negapatam (Nagapatnam)

   15101962  Goa

   15121525  Calicut (Kozhikode)

   15181619  Paliacate (Pulicat)

   15211740  Chaul

   15231662  Mylapore

   15281666  Chittagong

   15341601  Salsette Island

   15341661  Bombay (Mumbai)

   15351739  Baam (Vasai-Virar)

   15361662  Cranganore (Kodungallur)

   15401612  Surat

   15481658  Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)

   15591962  Daman and Diu

   15681659  Mangalore

   15791632  Hugli

   15981610  Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)

15181521  Maldives

15181658  Portuguese Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

15581573  Maldives

17th century

Portuguese India

   16871749  Mylapore

18th century

Portuguese India

   17791954  Dadra and Nagar Haveli

East Asia and Oceania 

16th century

15111641  Portuguese Malacca

15121621  Banda Islands

15121621  Moluccas (Maluku Islands)

   15221575  Ternate

   15761605  Ambon

   15781650  Tidore

15121665  Makassar

15531999  Macau

15331545  Ningbo

15711639  Decima (Dejima, Nagasaki)

17th century

16421975  Portuguese Timor (East Timor)1

19th century

Macau

   18641999  Coloane

   18491999  Portas do Cerco

   18511999  Taipa

   18901999  Ilha Verde

20th century

Macau

   19381941  Lapa and Montanha (Hengqin)

1 1975 is the date of East Timor’s Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, the independence of East Timor was recognized by Portugal and the rest of the world.

North America and the North Atlantic Ocean 

15th century

1420           Madeira

1432           Azores

16th century

15001579?  Terra Nova (Newfoundland)

15001579?  Labrador

15161579?  Nova Scotia

Central and South America 

16th century

15001822  Brazil

15361620  Barbados

17th century

16801777  Nova Colnia do Sacramento

19th century

18081822  Cisplatina (Uruguay)

Portuguese colonization of the Americas

Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia

 

Languages

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Member states and observers of the Francophonie

Members

Albania  Andorra  Armenia  Belgium (French Community)  Benin  Bulgaria  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cambodia  Cameroon  Canada (New Brunswick  Quebec)  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chad  Comoros  Cyprus1  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Cte d’Ivoire  Djibouti  Dominica  Egypt  Equatorial Guinea  France (French Guiana  Guadeloupe  Martinique  St. Pierre and Miquelon)  Gabon  Ghana1  Greece  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Haiti  Laos  Luxembourg  Lebanon  Macedonia2  Madagascar  Mali  Mauritania  Mauritius  Moldova  Monaco  Morocco  Niger  Romania  Rwanda  St. Lucia  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Seychelles  Switzerland  Togo  Tunisia  Vanuatu  Vietnam

Observers

Austria  Croatia  Czech Republic  Georgia  Hungary  Latvia  Lithuania  Mozambique  Poland  Serbia  Slovakia  Slovenia  Thailand  Ukraine

1 Associate member. 2 Provisionally referred to by the Francophonie as the “former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia”; see Macedonia naming dispute.

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Austronesian-speaking countries and territories

Formosan

Taiwan

Malayo-Polynesian

American Samoa  Brunei  Burma (Myanmar)  Cambodia  Christmas Island  Cocos (Keeling) Islands  Cook Islands  Easter Island  East Timor  Fiji  French Polynesia  Guam  Hainan  Indonesia  Kiribati  Madagascar  Malaysia  Marshall Islands  FS Micronesia  Nauru  New Caledonia  New Zealand  Niue  Northern Mariana Islands  Orchid Island  Palau  Papua New Guinea   Philippines  Samoa  Singapore  Solomon Islands  Sri Lanka  Suriname  Tokelau  Tonga  Tuvalu  United States (Hawaii)  Vanuatu  Vietnam  Wallis and Futuna

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English-speaking world

Anglosphere

Dark blue: Countries and territories where English is spoken natively by a significant population.

Light blue: Countries where English is an official language but not widely spoken.

Click on the coloured regions to view the related article.

 

 

Regions where English is an official language and spoken by a significant population:

Africa

Nigeria  Mauritius  Saint Helena  South Africa

 Americas

Anguilla  Antigua and Barbuda  The Bahamas  Barbados  Belize  Bermuda  British Virgin Islands  Canada  Cayman Islands  Dominica  Falkland Islands  Grenada  Guyana  Jamaica  Montserrat  Netherlands Antilles (Saba, Saint Eustatius, Saint Maarten)   Saint Kitts and Nevis  Saint Lucia  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  Trinidad and Tobago  Turks and Caicos Islands  United States  United States Virgin Islands

Asia

Hong Kong  Philippines  Singapore

Europe

Gibraltar  Guernsey  Isle of Man  Jersey  Malta  Republic of Ireland  United Kingdom

Oceania

Australia  Marshall Islands  Federated States of Micronesia  Nauru  New Zealand  Palau

 

Regions where English is an official language but not widely spoken:

Africa

Botswana  Cameroon  Ghana  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Madagascar  Malawi  Namibia  Rwanda  Sierra Leone  Sudan  Swaziland  Tanzania  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe

Americas

Puerto Rico

Asia

India  Malaysia  Pakistan

   Oceania

Fiji  Papua New Guinea  Solomon Islands

English Wiktionary

Categories: Madagascar | African countries | African Union member states | Countries of the Indian Ocean | East Africa | French-speaking countries | Island countries | Islands of Africa | Islands of Madagascar | Least Developed Countries | Malay-speaking countries and territories | Member states of La Francophonie | Physiographic provinces | Southern Africa | States and territories established in 1960Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links from April 2009 | Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages | Articles containing French language text | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008 | Articles with links needing disambiguation | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2009

Technorati Tags: Madagascar

A TripAdvisor™ TripWow slideshow of a travel blog to Stanley, Falkland Islands by TravelPod blogger Lance_fan titled “Port Stanley, Falkland Islands” Lance_fan’s travel blog entry: “Feb 14, Port Stanley, Falkland Islands Coordinates: 51d 40.20m S, 57d 49.42m W MILES: flying 8517, bus 22, taxi 33, walking 20, ship 1916, Zodiac boat 14 total: 10522 miles Stanley is a very small port city on this British overseas territory. Approximately 3000 people live in the Falkland islands, and 2000 of those live in Stanley. There are two little hotels, several little restaurants, pubs, and a store or two. There is even one gas station, oops, I mean Petrol station. The island gets a substantial amount of revenue from fishery royalties, sheep, and tourism, and somehow that translates in a fair amount of subsidized living. They pay nothing for health care, education (through college), and drastically reduced prices on fuel and other commodities. It is a very English community, and in keeping with that, I had fish and chips for lunch! These islands are so remote, yet they have good internet connections, telephone and TV, and know what the rest of the world is up to. There is even a little cinema playing current release movies. And there is an overnight courier service from England. But it is still so remote, to actually go anywhere is very expensive, and for someone to come here, the same. Too small and remote for me…. Ok to visit, but I think I’ll move on. Feb 15-16 at sea 1008 miles …
Video Rating: 0 / 5

Technorati Tags: around, Falkland, Islands, Lance_fan's, photos, Port, Stanley